What You Need to Know about VOR

What You Need to Know about VOR
 
A guide to using this old but reliable method
Excerpted from Cleared for Takeoff, copyright 1998, King Schools, Inc.
The figure below shows you a VORTAC, and the communications box associated with it. We'll try to decipher what all this stuff means.

First, the station symbol comes equipped with those tick marks, so you know right away that this is really a VORTAC. The communications box tells you that its name is Fellows, and in order to receive the station, you need to dial frequency 117.5 into your navigation receiver.
It also tells you that FLW is the three-letter identifier for this station, so, if you've entered FLW in your flight plan, everyone would know that you're flying to the Fellows VORTAC because there is no other FLW in the country.
Dit–Dah, Dah–Dit
Now, here's something that will be truly helpful to you: If you tune 117.5 into your nav radio, turn up the volume and listen; you'll hear the Morse code for that 3-letter identifier. If, like most of us, you can't interpret Morse code without your decoder ring, the FAA has taken pity on you.
So, when you start hearing that dit-dit-dah-dit, all you need do is listen, follow along, and then compare the dots and dashes you hear with the dots and dashes for the VOR identifier in the frequency box (..- . .-.. .- -).
So, for Fellows, you'd listen for "dit-dit-dah-dit...dit-dah-dit-dit...dit-dah-dah." Compare that with what you see on the chart and you'll know that you're tuned into FLW and not some other VOR.
Is the Right VOR Tuned, and Can You Count on It?
A Morse code identifier and, occasionally, a voice ID, are transmitted from each VOR. And although it may not seem necessary to identify VORs in this age of digital tuning, listening to the identifier is still the only way to verify that the VOR is in service and reliable—and that you've not made an error dialing in the digits.
If the identifier is not being transmitted, the VOR signal should not be considered reliable. When maintenance crews work on a VOR—perhaps to realign the signal—they remove the ident code, but often leave the VOR navigation signal on the air. So always identify the VOR first.
Who's That You're Talkin' to?
If you look beneath the Fellows VORTAC communications box, you'll see that Rancho Murieta is the controlling flight service station. That's who you'd talk to, if you needed to talk to the Flight Service Station (or FSS) through this facility.
Note the 122.1R on top of the box. The "R" means that the FSS can only listen to you (receive); it can't transmit on that frequency.
So, if you set 122.1 in your comm radio, they can hear you, but you can't hear them on your comm radio. They can, however, transmit over the VOR frequency, so you'd be able listen to them on your nav receiver. So, at FLW, you'd call Rancho Murieta FSS on 122.1, and listen to them on 117.5.
If there were other frequencies listed above the box without the "R," then you could talk and listen on those frequencies on your comm radio.
How Does VOR Work?
VORs work on the principle of the phase difference in two radio signals.
"Phase Difference?" you say. "Is this going to be some dreary electronics discussion like the ones we used to have in high school physics class that always put me in detention hall because I'd fall asleep?" No. It will not.
You can get your mind around this concept by thinking of a tower with two lights on it. One light rotates at a constant rate around the tower but has a very narrow beam so that it can only be seen by the viewer just as the beam passes the viewer's position. The other light flashes—and can be seen in all directions (an omnidirectional light)—only when the rotating light exactly passes magnetic north.
If you know how fast the rotating light is moving, it's a simple matter to start a timer when the omnidirectional light flashes, just as the rotating light passes north, and then note the time when you see the rotating beam aim at your position. Then, with just a little math you'll know your bearing from the station.
That's how a VOR works. A rotating directional signal is broadcast from the VOR, while a second (omnidirectional) signal is broadcast only when the rotating signal passes north. The VOR receiver in your aircraft measures the time—or phase—difference in these two signals and comes up with the bearing—or radial—from the station.
Old but Reliable
In spite of the age and limitations of the system, all of the airways in the United States, and most of the world, have been built on the radials of VORs. The highways in the sky charted from VOR to VOR have been the backbone of air navigation for decades.
And now that you know all about VOR stations, you'll know how to identify them and when they are reliable to use for that long cross-country trip of yours. Plus...you'll have added another round of ammunition to your arsenal of amazing aviation acronyms!
So, now you can recognize a VOR when you see one on a chart. And you know where to find all the information you'll need to use a VOR for navigation. So let's look inside your airplane and see where the VOR lives in the cockpit.
The VOR Indicator
Besides the nav receiver—where you set the frequency and volume—you need a way to visualize those VOR radials. And they've given you a pretty ingenious system to pick the radial you're interested in and then show you where you are in relation to it. Amazingly, it's all in one package that's referred to, cleverly enough, as the VOR indicator.
Notice that the VOR indicator has a rotating compass card, giving it a look similar to the heading indicator. And just like the heading indicator, there's a knob at the lower left which turns the card.

Omni Bearing Selector
The difference is that this knob on the VOR indicator is labeled "OBS", which stands for "Omni Bearing Selector." On this instrument, the card only moves when you move it. So, you turn the OBS knob to select a VOR radial, or course, which you read at the top of the arrow. You have 360 possible choices.
Course Deviation Indicator
Consider the vertical needle in the center of the indicator. It's hinged at the top and swings left or right. It's called the "Course Deviation Indicator" or "CDI," but commonly referred to as the "needle."
Think of the needle as an imaginary centerline on a highway. If you're on the right side of the highway, the centerline—or your needle—is to the left. If you move toward the left, then, as you approach the center of the highway, the needle moves toward the center of the instrument.
But if you continued left, past the center, the needle would move past center, toward the right side. In flight, you navigate a radial, or course, by keeping the needle in the center, and if it moves to one side, you move toward it. Remember: Fly toward the needle.
How Wide is the Road?
So how wide is the aerial highway? From a centered needle to a full needle deflection measures 10 degrees, so if the needle is on the outermost dot, you are 10 degrees off your selected course.
As you can see from the figure above, the face of a VOR indicator has equally spaced dots so you can tell how far you are off course. If your CDI has 5 dots on either side of center, like this one, then each dot your needle deflects is equal to 2 degrees. You can actually count how many degrees off you are, up to a maximum of 10 degrees.
If the needle is pegged against the side of the instrument, you don't really know how far off course you are, just that it must be more than 10 degrees.
Since the CDI shows your angle off course, not your distance, your actual distance off course will vary with how far you are from the station. For instance, if you're 60 miles from the station, a 1 degree needle deflection means you are 1 mile off course. But if you're only 15 miles from the station, that same 1degree of needle deflection tells you that you're only 1/4 mile off course. This explains why the needle moves so dramatically when you get close to the VOR station.
To/From Indicator
Also in the center portion of the indicator, there's a window that reads TO on a white background with a small triangle pointing up, or FR for "from" with a triangle pointing down ... or it could be filled with a red and white crosshatched symbol, called the Nav Flag or the Off Flag. Some To/From indicators may just only be up and down triangles. (The up arrow is TO.)
The To/From indicator tells you whether the course you have selected on the OBS is a radial from the station, or a course to the station. It does not tell you whether your current heading will take you to or from the station.
When your Off Flag shows in the window, it tells you that you have an unreliable signal and you shouldn't use that station for navigation. However, the Off Flag may also appear, momentarily, as the To/From indicator changes from one to the other when you fly over or past the station.

Using Views and Windows

Using Views and Windows
 
Get a better look at all there is to see in Flight Simulator
In a real airplane, you can look around by moving your head. To look around in Flight Simulator you have to change views. The best part is that unlike in the real world, you can even change views outside the airplane!
Press S to select a view category, then press A to select a view within that category.

Quick keys for frequently-used views

    Virtual Cockpit F9
2-D Cockpit F10
Locked Spot view F11
Top-Down view F12
Think of view modes as camera position categories. Within each category, you can choose individual camera positions. When you use Cockpit views, the camera is like your eyes; showing the view you have as the pilot in the cockpit. When you use Outside Views, it's a camera view from the outside, looking at your aircraft. Experiment with views to find the right combination for your style of flying.
There are six main view modes in Flight Simulator. You cycle through the view modes using the keyboard, buttons on a joystick, an Xbox 360 for Windows controller, or the menus (more on that below) and you can choose which view you want to display within each mode.
Whenever you change views, text in the upper-right corner of the screen displays the view name for three seconds.

To cycle through view modes
Press S to cycle forward.
-or-
Press SHIFT+S to cycle backwards.
-or-
On the Views menu, point to View Mode, point to a category, then click a view.

To cycle views within a view mode
Press A to cycle forward.
-or-
Press SHIFT+A to cycle backwards.
-or-
On the Views menu, point to View Mode, point to a category, then click a view.

The view modes are:

View mode What you see
Cockpit Pilot's view from the 2-D cockpit or 3-D virtual cockpit.
Outside Your aircraft from an external viewpoint.
Tower Your aircraft from a control tower or tower-like perspective (non-towered airports).
Aircraft Your aircraft from an external camera on or near the aircraft.
Runway A runway from the viewpoint of your cockpit. Very useful for finding the runway on approach.
Air traffic Other aircraft in the sky and on the ground.
Cockpit Views
There are several cockpit views, not all of which are available in all aircraft:

View What you see
2-D Cockpit 2-D instrument panel with various panel options.
Virtual cockpit 3-D cockpit with the ability to pan the camera view.
Right seat Virtual cockpit with the ability to pan the camera view.
Rear seat Virtual cockpit with the ability to pan the camera view.
Radio stack Close-up view of radios with the ability to pan the camera view.
Light switches Close-up view of switches with the ability to pan the camera view.


Beaver cockpit: 2-D (left) and 3-D (right).

The 2-D cockpit and the 3-D virtual cockpit differ in how you are able to look around the cockpit. In the 2-D cockpit, you can display hidden sections of the panel with key commands and use the keyboard, a joystick, or an Xbox controller to make quick changes to the direction in which you're looking. In 3-D virtual cockpit, you can use the keyboard, your joystick, the mouse, or an Xbox controller to look around, using a panning action, which provides a realistic movement as if you are moving your head.

To cycle through view modes to Cockpit view
Press S.
-or-
On the Views menu, point to View Mode, point to Cockpit, then click a cockpit view.

To cycle through cockpit views
Press A.
-or-
On the Views menu, point to View Mode, point to Cockpit, then click a cockpit view.
You can set 2-D cockpit or 3-D cockpit as the default view.

To set the default cockpit view
On the Options menu, point to Settings, then click Display.
Click the Aircraft tab.
Select the 2-D instrument panel or the 3-D virtual cockpit option.
Click OK.

There are also several different panels you can choose while in 2-D cockpit mode. To learn more, see Instrument Panels below.

Panel What you see
2-D panel Normal 2-D panel.
IFR panel Larger 2-D panel for flying only by reference to instruments.
Approach panel A smaller version of the 2-D panel with greater visibility over the top of the panel.
Mini panel Only the primary instruments with no panel.
No panel No panel or instruments.

Outside Views
Outside views place the camera at a point in space, viewing your aircraft from outside.


Airbus A321 on approach in spot plane view.

There are four options for outside views:

View What you see
Spot Your aircraft as viewed from a chase plane (fluid transition).
Locked Spot Your aircraft as viewed from a chase plane (direct transition).
Flyby Your aircraft as it flies past a fixed point.
Top-down Your aircraft viewed top-down from high altitude.

To cycle through view modes to Outside view
Press S.
-or-
On the Views menu, point to View Mode, point to Outside, then click an outside view.

To cycle through outside views
Press A.
-or-
On the Views menu, point to View Mode, point to Outside, then click an outside view.

Tower Views
When you select a Tower view, the default view is from the tower nearest to your aircraft. You can change the Tower view to any of the towers listed in the Tower view submenu.


Airbus A321 from Tower view.

To cycle through view modes to Tower view
Press S.
-or-
On the Views menu, point to View Mode, point to Tower, then click a tower.

To cycle through tower views
Press A.
-or-
On the Views menu, point to View Mode, point to Tower, then click a tower.

Aircraft Views
When you select an Aircraft view, the default view depends upon which aircraft you're flying. Different aircraft have different options for Aircraft view. You can change the aircraft view on the Aircraft View submenu.


Boeing 747-400—landing gear view.

To cycle through view modes to Aircraft view
Press S.
-or-
On the Views menu, point to View Mode, point to Aircraft, then click an aircraft view.

To cycle through aircraft views
Press A.
-or-
On the Views menu, point to View Mode, point to Aircraft, then click an aircraft view.

Runway Views
When you select a Runway view, the view shifts toward the runway selected in the Runway View submenu as seen from your cockpit. This view is very useful if you're close to your destination airport but you're having difficulty seeing the runway.

To cycle through view modes to Runway view
Press S.
-or-
On the Views menu, point to View Mode, point to Runway, then click a specific runway.

To cycle through runway views
Press A.
-or-
On the Views menu, point to View Mode, point to Runway, then click a specific runway.

Air Traffic Views
Important note: you must have air traffic turned on or the Air Traffic view mode will not appear in the Views menu. To learn more about air traffic settings, see Changing Traffic Settings.
Air Traffic view shifts your viewpoint to other aircraft in the sky and on the ground.

To cycle through view modes to Air Traffic view
Press S.
-or-
On the Views menu, point to View Mode, point to Air Traffic, then click a specific aircraft.

To cycle through air traffic views
Press A.
-or-
On the Views menu, point to View Mode, point to Air Traffic, then click a specific aircraft.

Instrument Panels
You can adjust the transparency of instrument panels (2-D only), or eliminate the panel altogether to see the world beyond the cockpit.


Transparent instrument panel on final.
To adjust panel tranparency
Press CTRL+SHIFT+T.
Press + (PLUS) or - (MINUS) to to increase or decrease transparency.
-or-
On the Options menu, point to Settings, then click Display.
Click the Aircraft tab.
Move the 2-D panel transparency slider right or left to increase or decrease transparency.
Click OK.

You can select one of five 2-D cockpit instrument panel options:

Normal IFR
Flight Approach Mini-panel No panel
 

To choose a 2-D cockpit view
Press S to select 2-D cockpit.
Press W to select a specific panel display.

Looking Around
In most views, you can look around by using the hat switch on your joystick, by pressing keys on the numeric keypad (see the Key Commands page of the Kneeboard for the full list of commands), or by using the thumbstick on an Xbox 360 controller for Windows.
One of the fastest and best tools for looking around the cockpit or the world in Flight Simulator is to use the special mouse-look feature. To learn more, see Using the Mouse.


Looking foward/left on downwind to a mountain airstrip.
To use a joystick hat switch to change view direction:

Action Move hat switch
Look forward/right Up/right
Look right Right
Look back/right Down/right
Look back Down
Look back/left Down/left
Look left Left
Look forward/left Up/left
Look up Staight/up

To use key commands to change view direction (you must have NUM LOCK on):

Action Key command
Look forward/right NUMPAD 9
Look right NUMPAD 6
Look back/right NUMPAD 3
Look back NUMPAD 2
Look back/left NUMPAD 1
Look left NUMPAD 4
Look forward/left NUMPAD 7
Look up CTRL+SHIFT+NUMPAD 8

To change view direction with an Xbox 360 controller for Windows
Move the right thumbstick.
-or-
Press the D-pad.
Zooming In and Out
You can use zoom controls to magnify or reduce any view. Zoom in close enough to see the rivets on your aircraft, or zoom out to get a bird's-eye view of the airport below. Text in the upper-right corner of the screen displays the current zoom factor.

To zoom in and out in Cockpit, Tower, Spot Plane, or Top-down view
Press the EQUAL SIGN (=) to zoom in.
-or-
Press HYPHEN (-) to zoom out.
Moving the Eyepoint
Having trouble seeing over the instrument panel? In a real airplane you'd just lean forward a bit or sit on a phone book. In Flight Simulator you can move the eyepoint, the point from which your virtual eyes look out. This is particularly useful ability when taxiing taildraggers in Cockpit or Virtual Cockpit views.
To move the eyepoint in any view:

Action
*3-D virtual cockpit only Key command
Move Eyepoint Back* CTRL+ENTER
Move Eyepoint Up SHIFT+ENTER
Move Eyepoint Down SHIFT+BACKSPACE
Pan Eyepoint Up CTRL+SHIFT+Q
Pan Eyepoint Down CTRL+Q
Move Eyepoint Forward* CTRL+BACKSPACE
Move Eyepoint Left* CTRL+SHIFT+BACKSPACE
Move Eyepoint Right* CTRL+SHIFT+ENTER
Reset Eyepoint CTRL+SPACEBAR
Look up CTRL+SHIFT+NUMPAD 8

Using Multiple Windows
The Flight Simulator screen is composed of windows. In 2-D Cockpit view, the instrument panel is displayed in one window, and the outside world in another. You can open additional windows, and display any view in them. For example, you can fly in Cockpit view and open an additional window that displays the Top-down view for extra situational awareness in the traffic pattern.


Add new windows by pressing [.
To open a new view window
Press [ (LEFT BRACKET).
-or-
On the Views menu, point to New View, then click the view that you want.
Making a Window Active
You can have several different windows open at once. Flight Simulator adds new windows to the bottom of the Views menu, and numbers them in the order that you opened them. The active view window has a check mark next to it. All keyboard and joystick view commands apply to the active window.
IMPORTANT NOTE: Instrument subpanels, the kneeboard, the air traffic control menu, and the chat window are also treated as windows.

To activate a window
Click anywhere inside the window.
-or-
Press CTRL+TAB to cycle through the open windows, selecting the window you want to activate.
-or-
In the list at the bottom of the Views menu, click the window you want to make the active window.
Other Flight Simulator window tricks
Flight Simulator has many keyboard shortcuts to help you work with views and windows. For the complete list, see the Key Commands page of the Kneeboard (press SHIFT+F10). Here are some other tricks you can do with windows. The best way to learn about these is to experiment with them.

To close a window
Click the view window, then press ] (RIGHT BRACKET).
-or-
Right-click on the window, then choose Close Window from the shortcut menu.

To resize a window
Drag a corner or a side of the window.

NOTE: To move a window between monitors in full screen view, it is not necessary to undock the window as described below.

To move a Flight Simulator window outside the Flight Simulator application window
Click the window that contains the view you want to move.
On the Views menu, click Undock View.
Drag the undocked window anywhere on the Windows desktop ( even to another monitor).
-or-
Right-click the window that contains the view you want to undock.
Click Undock Window.
Drag the undocked window anywhere on the Windows desktop ( even to another monitor).

Displaying Instrument Subpanels
Some Flight Simulator aircraft have separate windows or subpanels for their radio stacks, compass, engine controls, and other cockpit controls. Use SHIFT+1-7 to display the various subpanels (see the list of key commands for each aircraft on the kneeboard in the cockpit). To learn more about using multiple monitors with Flight Simulator, see Using Multiple Monitors with Flight Simulator.


Displaying windows and subpanels on multiple monitors.

Quick Keys
You can use some keyboard shortcuts to rapidly switch to some of the most useful views.

View Key command
Virtual Cockpit F9
Spot View F10
Top-Down View F11
Starting View F12

Axis Indicators
An axis indicator makes it easy to determine pitch and bank angles relative to the horizon without having to look at the attitude indicator; real-world pilots often use a smudge on the windscreen for the same purpose. The axis indicators in Flight Simulator are a great tool when you're learning basic flying maneuvers. They're also very useful if you hide the instrument panel by pressing W.
Using the Axis indicator drop-down list, you can display one of three axis indicators on the windscreen of your aircraft:
4 dots
Small V
Large V


Large V axis indicator.

Using the Kneeboard

Using the Kneeboard  
 
Your best source for in-flight information

Related Links

  Getting Help on the Fly  
  Top 10 Key Commands  
  Using the Flight Planner  
  All About Flights  
  Air Traffic Control  
 

Real-world pilots need to refer to lots of information while they fly, and most put everything they need at their fingertips: on a kneeboard, a sort of clipboard that straps to the pilot's knee. In Flight Simulator, you don't need to sort through piles of paper. Everything you need is assembled for you on an electronic kneeboard that is accessible as you fly.
The Flight Simulator kneeboard includes seven pages:
Briefing: Displays an abbreviated briefing for the current Mission.
Messages: A log of Air Traffic Control transmissions and Mission captions.
Nav Log: A list of waypoints, headings, time, and distance for a flight plan created using the Flight Planner.
Keys: A complete list of keyboard commands.
Checklist: Operating procedures for the aircraft you're flying.
Reference: A list of recommended speeds for the aircraft you're flying.
Mission: A list of Mission objectives.


Press SHIFT+F10 to display the kneeboard.
 
To display the kneeboard
Click the  kneeboard icon on the instrument panel.
-or-
Press SHIFT+F10.
-or-
On the Aircraft menu, point to Kneeboard, and choose one of the kneeboard pages.
Once the kneeboard is displayed, you can drag it around the screen or move it to another monitor. The next time you open the kneeboard, it will reopen to the same location. To learn more about using multiple monitors, see Using Multiple Monitors with Flight Simulator.

To view the different kneeboard pages
Click the page buttons along the top of the kneeboard.
-or-
Press SHIFT+F10 to cycle through the pages.
 
To close the kneeboard
Click the  Close button in the upper right-hand corner of the kneeboard.
-or-
Press SHIFT+F10 to cycle through the pages and close the kneeboard.
Printing the Kneeboard Files
If you'd like to have a paper copy of the information on the kneeboard, it's easy to print out.
Briefings
You can print Mission briefings from the Briefing dialog box before a Mission begins.
Messages
The radio communications log and Mission briefing are not printable from the kneeboard.
Navigation Log
You can print the navigation log by accessing it from the Flights menu: On the Flights menu, select Navigation Log, and then click the Print button.
Key Commands
View the complete list of key commands. To print the key commands list, click Print in the Learning Center navigation bar.
Printing Checklists and Reference Information
The files for Checklist and Reference pages are located in the
...\Flight Simulator X\SimObjects\Airplanes\aircraft name folder for airplanes
...\Flight Simulator X\SimObjects\Rotorcraft\aircraft name for the helicopters
The files are aircraft name_check.htm and aircraft name_ref.htm, respectively. To print a checklist or reference page, open the file using your Web browser, and click Print.
Mission
The Mission objectives are not printable from the kneeboard.

Using Multiple Monitors with Flight Simulator

Using Multiple Monitors with Flight Simulator
 
More screens, more views
Flight Simulator's ability to display multiple windows on more than one monitor at a time creates a more realistic cockpit environment. You can use a center monitor to display the aircraft instrument panel and the outside view ahead of the cockpit, and use another monitor to display the radio stack, throttle quadrant, GPS, or any of the other windows available in the Views menu.

Aside from additional monitors, you'll need a video card that can support multiple monitors, or a system that can support multiple video cards. Consult your computer vendor for recommendations and installation instructions.
Flight Simulator can run in either full screen or windowed mode. When using full screen mode with multiple monitors, Flight Simulator fills the primary monitor and the other monitors will appear black. You can move windows, such as the GPS, a spot view window, the throttle quadrant, or an overhead panel, onto a secondary monitor.

EXAMPLE: To set up a cockpit like the one pictured above
Make the center moniotor your primary display. Run Flight Simulator full screen or in windowed mode.
On the Views menu, point to New View, point to Cockpit, and then click Virtual Cockpit.
Drag the window to the left monitor and size the window to fill the screen.
Pan the view in that window until you're looking at the left wing.
Repeat steps 2 through 4 for a view of the right wing on the right monitor.
Press SHIFT+3 to display the GPS.
Drag the GPS to one of the secondary monitors.
Press [ (left bracket) to display the a small view window.
Press S to display the view you want in the small window.

You can display more windows on multiple monitors than the ones described in the example. Feel free to experiment and create a cockpit setup that works best for your style of flying.
To learn more about opening multiple windows, see Using Views and Windows. Once you have another window open, moving it between monitors is simple. Remember that the radio stack, throttle quadrant, and other cockpit elements pop up in their own window and can be moved. Depending on your system, using multiple monitors may affect performance.

To move windows between monitors
Right-click on the window you want to move.
On the shortcut menu, click Undock.
Drag the window to another monitor.
Note: In full screen mode, it is not necessary to undock a window before moving it to another monitor.

Important note:
In windowed mode, you can view multiple windows on different monitors, but don't allow a single Flight Simulator window to stretch across multiple monitors, as this may slow system performance.

Understanding Airspace

Understanding Airspace
 
Boundaries in the sky
 It's not essential that you understand the way airspace is carved up in order to enjoy using ATC and radio communications in Flight Simulator. In Flight Simulator, the ATC menu changes according to various factors, some having to do with what type of airspace you're in or approaching. In the real world, you're required to speak with a controller to enter certain classes of airspace. But if you don't speak to a controller in Flight Simulator, we won't take your pilot certificate away.
However, if you're interested in what various airspace classifications mean in the United States, read on.

Related Links

  Introduction to Air Traffic Control
  Airport Traffic Patterns
  What You Need to Know About VOR
  Using the GPS
  ATC Glossary
 

U.S. Airspace Classifications
Class A (Alfa)
Includes airspace from 18,000 feet (5,486 meters) above mean sea level (MSL) up to and including FL600 (Flight Level 600, or 60,000 feet/18,288 meters). Unless otherwise authorized, pilots must operate under instrument flight rules in Class A airspace.
Class B (Bravo)
Includes controlled airspace from the surface to 10,000 feet (3,048 meters) MSL surrounding the busiest airports. Class B airspace volumes are individually tailored, but usually include airspace within 30 miles of the primary airport. To operate in real-world Class B airspace, pilots must meet certain requirements for certification, weather conditions, and aircraft equipment, although you don't need to worry about these factors in Flight Simulator. You're required to contact and receive a clearance from ATC prior to entering Class B airspace in the real world. If you take off from within Class B or Class C airspace in Flight Simulator, ATC behaves as though Flight Following service is automatic, meaning that ATC will handle your flight until you're out of the Class B or Class C airspace.


Airspace Classifications:
A-Class Alfa, B-Class Bravo, C-Class Charlie, D-Class Delta, E-Class Echo, G-Class Golf
Class C (Charlie)
Includes airspace from the surface to 4,000 feet (1,219 meters) MSL above an airport with an operational control tower and that is serviced by a Terminal Radar Approach Control (TRACON). Class C airspace is individually tailored for each airport, but it usually extends in a radius of five nautical miles (9.26 kilometers), rising from the surface up to 4,000 feet, and then has a shelf area extending 10 nautical miles (18.52 kilometers) from 1,200 feet (366 meters) to 4,000 feet. You're required to establish communication with ATC prior to entering Class C airspace in the real world.
Class D (Delta)
Includes airspace from the surface to 2,500 feet (762 meters) MSL above an airport with an operational control tower. Class D airspace is individually tailored for the airport it surrounds. You're required to establish communication with ATC prior to entering Class D airspace in the real world.
Class E (Echo)
All other controlled airspace that is not included in Class A, B, C, or D. You're not required to communicate with anyone when flying in Class E airspace unless the weather calls for IFR.
Class G (Golf)
Uncontrolled airspace with three different altitude levels: from the surface up to and including 1,200 feet (365.76 meters) above ground level (AGL); more than 1,200 feet AGL but less than 10,000 feet (3,048 meters) MSL; and at or above 10,000 feet MSL up to but not including 14,500 feet (4,420 meters) MSL. You're not required to communicate with anyone when flying in Class G airspace.

Turbine Engines

Turbine Engines  
 
Learn the basics of how the turbine, or jet, engine works
Knowledge of a few general principles of engine operation helps pilots operate engines efficiently, extends the operating life of the power plant, and helps avoid engine failures.
Principles of Operation


 
Turbine engines were developed because, propellers and piston engines have limits for effectively pushing and combusting thin air at high altitudes. Turbine engines, however, excel at high altitudes because they compress air before combustion, thus increasing high-altitude performance. And flying high in thin air translates to better fuel efficiency, an extended flying range, and faster and smoother flying high above the turbulence of most weather. That's why turbine engines, whether turboprops or turbofans, have replaced piston engines on most large aircraft. Turbines have also become increasingly popular on smaller executive aircraft with the development of small, efficient turbofan engines.
How It Works
The turbines in a turbine engine are fan-like structures. Blades arrayed around a shaft catch air flowing through the engine and turn the central engine shaft. Most modern turbine engines have several turbines that compress the incoming air at separate stages before it reaches the combustion chamber. Additional turbines in the exhaust area of the engine use the energy from the exhaust and keep the turbine shaft rotating.
All turbine engines operate according to the same basic principle. A combustible mixture of fuel and air is drawn into the engine. The air and fuel mix in a combustion chamber, where the mixture is ignited. The hot exhaust gas shoots out the rear of the engine at high speed, pushing the airplane ahead. As the hot air flows through the engine, it turns additional turbines in the exhaust stream, which keep the shaft spinning quickly, usually more than 10,000 revolutions per minute (rpm).
Turbofan Engines
A turbofan engine has a large-diameter turbine at the front of the engine that accelerates a large mass of air that flows around the central engine core and out the back. This arrangement makes more efficient use of fuel and is much quieter than older turbojet technology.
Turboprop Engines
A turboprop engine is a jet engine attached to a propeller. The high-speed turbines generate an enormous amount of power that is transmitted to the propeller through a gear-reduction system. The propeller is really a large fan turned by the turbine. Turboprop engines are much more efficient than pure jet engines at speeds in the 250mph to 350 mph (400km/h to 560 km/h) range. At higher speeds, propellers lose their efficiency, and pure jet engines are a better choice.
Turbine Engine Controls
From a pilot's perspective, turbine engines are much easier to operate than piston engines. Aircraft equipped with turbofan engines—like the Bombardier Learjet 45 and Boeing 737–800—have a single power control: the thrust levers. Automatic fuel control systems take care of mixing fuel and air in the combustion chamber, and there's no propeller control to worry about.

To increase power
Move the thrust levers forward.
To reduce power
Move the thrust levers back.
Keep in mind, however, that it takes a while for jet engines to develop full power or "spool up." It's very important to anticipate the need for more power.
Watch the Temperatures
By far the most important consideration when operating a turbine engine is temperature control. If you shove the thrust levers forward on takeoff, you can easily overheat the engines. If you don't cause an engine failure, at the least you'll run up a very large bill for inspection and repair of critical engine components. So watch the exhaust gas temperature (EGT) and inlet turbine temperature (ITT) gauges carefully when you add power. Keep the needles out of the red zones.
Reverse Thrust
The Learjet 45, Bombardier CRJ, Boeing 737–800, and the Boeing 747–400 are equipped with thrust reversers that deflect the engines' exhaust forward to help the airplane slow down after landing.

To activate the thrust reversers
Reduce power to idle.
Hold down F2.
As the airplane slows to 60 knots, come out of reverse thrust: press F1.

Troubleshooting Basics  
 
Resolve problems and get back to flying
Most problems that you encounter when running Flight Simulator are related to conflicts between hardware components or problems with manufacturer's hardware drivers. You can troubleshoot many of these problems yourself following the steps below.
Restarting Flight Simulator
If Flight Simulator stops responding, try restarting the simulator before you try anything else. The problem might not be obvious, but it may be a one-time issue that never occurs again. If Flight Simulator stops responding repeatedly, try the steps below to troubleshoot your issue.
Video Drivers
Drivers are small software programs that allow your operating system to communicate with the hardware in your computer. Beyond acting as a translator, a driver can also enhance the operation of a particular piece of hardware, such as a video adapter or a sound card. A damaged or outdated video driver can cause program errors.
The manufacturer of your video or sound device probably offers free driver updates on their Web site. Contact your computer vendor or video card manufacturer to inquire about obtaining and installing the latest version of the driver for your video adapter.

To determine who made your video card
Click Start, point to Settings, and then click Control Panel.
Double-click System.
On the Hardware tab, click Device Manager.
Click the plus symbol next to Display Adapters to expand the branch.
Double-click a device in the list.
On the General tab, look for the manufacturer name.
The manufacturers name appears in the name of the adapter.
For information about how to contact your video adapter manufacturer, visit support.microsoft.com and search for the following articles in the Microsoft Knowledge Base:
Article 65416: Hardware and Software Third-Party Vendor Contact List, A-K
Article 60781: Hardware and Software Third-Party Vendor Contact List, L-P
Article 60782: Hardware and Software Third-Party Vendor Contact List, Q-Z
(You will need an Internet connection to access this information.)
Sound Drivers
To determine if the sound driver is causing a problem, disable the sound card.

To disable the sound card
Click Start, point to Settings, and then click Control Panel.
Double-click Sounds and Audio Devices.
On the Hardware tab, select the audio device you want to disable, then click Properties.
In the Device usage list, select Do not use this device (disable).
Click OK.
Restart your computer.
Note: If you continue to experience issues after disabling the sound card, undo the steps above and then update your sound card drivers.

To determine the version of your sound card and its drivers
Click Start, and then click Run.
Type dxdiag in the Open box, and then click OK. If you get a message asking if you want to proceed, click Yes.
In the DirectX Diagnostic Tool dialog box, click the Sound.
In the Device area, note the name of your device on the Name line.
In the Drivers field, note the version number on the Version line.
When you have noted the version numbers for the sound card installed on your computer, click Exit.
For information about how to contact your sound card manufacturer, visit support.microsoft.com and search for the following articles in the Microsoft Knowledge Base:
Article 65416: Hardware and Software Third-Party Vendor Contact List, A-K
Article 60781: Hardware and Software Third-Party Vendor Contact List, L-P
Article 60782: Hardware and Software Third-Party Vendor Contact List, Q-Z
(You will need an Internet connection to access this information.)
If you update your sound card drivers and you still have problems in Flight Simulator, try reducing Sound Acceleration in Windows.

To reduce hardware sound acceleration
Click Start, and then click Run.
Type dxdiag in the Open box, and then click OK.
In the DirectX Diagnostic Tool dialog box, click the Sound tab.
Under DirectX Features, move the Hardware Sound Acceleration Level slider left to the No acceleration setting.
Click Exit.
DirectX Issues
DirectX is a Windows component that allows software programs to communicate well with computer hardware. Games and simulations use DirectX to communicate with your sound card, video card, and game controllers. For more information about DirectX, or to download and install the latest version, visit www.microsoft.com/directx. (You will need an Internet connection to access this information.)
Graphics Issues
Flight Simulator automatically determines during setup the display settings that are best for the hardware on your computer. If the graphics (terrain, textures, and other visuals) in the simulator don't display correctly, there are a number of steps you can take. You can try selecting different settings (see Changing Graphic Settings).
It's important to check the readme file to see if there are known issues with the video card in your computer. Video card manufacturers often update the drivers and make them available for download from their Web sites. The Readme file lists known problems and provides links to the manufacturers' Web sites. To view the readme file, double-click the Readme.rtf file in your Flight Simulator folder.
Add-on Compatibility
There are thousands of third-party aircraft, scenery, and other software products for Flight Simulator. We work to ensure backward compatibility with these products for two versions, meaning that if the product was developed for Flight Simulator 2002, it should work on Flight Simulator X if the following requirements are met:
The manufacturer followed the Software Developer's Kit for Flight Simulator.
The software is correctly installed.
Note: While we work to ensure compatibility with third-party addons, Microsoft Support does not provide assistance with these programs. If your add-on software is not working with Flight Simulator X, please contact the software manufacturer.
Out-of-Memory Messages
Run Disk Cleanup if you receive an error message that states:
"Your computer has run out of available memory. Flight Simulator will now exit. You may not have enough free space on your hard drive. Run Disk Cleanup to free up space, and then try running Flight Simulator again."

To run Disk Cleanup
On the Start menu, point to Programs, point to Accessories , point to System tools, and then click Disk Cleanup.
Follow the instructions on the screen.
Clues About Error Messages
Sometimes, you can determine the cause of the problem by noting what occurred just before you received the error message, whether the problem also occurs in other programs, or if the problem occurs every time you attempt to perform a particular action.
To determine the cause of the problem, answer the following questions:
Are other programs running on your computer when you receive the error message?
Is this a known issue with Flight Simulator?
Does the problem only occur during a particular action?
Does the problem occur in other programs?
Can you reproduce the problem, or does it occur randomly?
The following sections discuss each question and possible resolutions.
Are Other Programs Running on your Computer When You Receive the Error Message?
You can prevent or resolve many error messages by exiting all programs that are running on your computer before you start Flight Simulator.

To exit all programs
Press CTRL+ALT+DELETE to display the Windows Task Manager.
On the Applications tab, click any program, and then click End Task. Repeat this step to exit all programs.
Exit Windows Task Manager.
Is the Problem a Known Issue with Flight Simulator?
Certain "invalid page fault" or "fatal exception" error messages only occur when specific conditions are true. For more information about how to resolve specific error messages, search the Microsoft Knowledge Base at support.microsoft.com for the exact text of the error message. (You will need an Internet connection to access this information.)
Does the Problem Only Occur During a Particular Action?
If you receive the error message only when you perform a specific action or set of actions in Flight Simulator, the actions that trigger the error message may provide clues about which solutions you should try first.
For example, if you only receive the error message when you press a programmed button on your joystick, you may want to disable programmed buttons, update the joystick software, or even update the sound driver for your sound card if the joystick is connected to the game port on your sound card.
Does the Problem Occur in Other Programs?
If the problem occurs in other programs, the problem most likely is caused by an outdated device driver, a damaged or missing component of Windows, or another program that is running in the background.

Note: Some of the troubleshooting tips and possible solutions in this topic may help with these issues, but the focus of this topic is to resolve error messages that are specific to Flight Simulator. If the information in this topic doesn't resolve problems that occur in other programs, you may want to look for information about troubleshooting problems in other programs running on your computer.
Can You Reproduce the Problem, or Does It Occur Randomly?
If you always receive the error message each time you perform a specific action or set of actions, use one of the suggested resolutions for the problem, and then perform that action or set of actions again. If you no longer receive the error message, assume that the problem is resolved. If you continue to receive the error message, you need to continue troubleshooting the problem.
If you cannot easily reproduce the problem, use one of the suggested resolutions for the problem, and then fly Flight Simulator until you feel comfortable that the problem is resolved. If you continue to receive the error message, try another possible resolution.
Note: Be sure to keep track of the resolutions that you have tried, along with the results for each one.
Computer System Requirements
In addition to requiring a computer with the Windows operating system, Flight Simulator runs best on systems configured as indicated in the following table.

Item Minimum Recommended Best  
CPU 1.0 GHz 2.8 GHz 3.6 GHz  
Memory 256 MB 1 GB 2 GB  
Video card 32 MB 64 MB 512 MB  
Internet 56.6 modem Broadband Broadband  
Other Sound card
Speakers or headphones
Joystick or Xbox 360 Controller for Windows
Microphone (required for RT voice)
Be sure to download and install the latest Windows Service Pack from www.microsoft.com/windows/default.asp. (You will need an Internet connection to download this update.)
Are Any Programs Conflicting with Flight Simulator?
When you start Microsoft Windows, other software may start along with the operating system. These programs, which may include antivirus and system utility programs, can interfere with Flight Simulator. Consequently, you may receive an error message, or Flight Simulator may stop responding. You can set up your computer to perform a clean boot, which prevents other programs from starting automatically.

To perform a clean boot on Windows XP
Click Start, and then click Run.
In the Open box, type msconfig, and then click OK.
In the System Configuration Utility, click the General tab, and then click Selective Startup.
Under Selective Startup, clear the following check boxes:
Process SYSTEM.INI file
Process WIN.INI file
Load Startup Items
Click the Services tab.
Select the Hide All Microsoft Services check box, then click Disable All.
Click OK.
Click Restart.
Note: To complete this procedure, you must be logged on as an administrator or as a member of the Administrators group. If your computer is connected to a network, network policy settings may prevent you from completing this procedure.
 
To restore to a normal startup
Click Start, and then click Run.
In the Open box, type msconfig, and then click OK.
In the System Configuration Utility, click the General tab.
Click Normal Startup.
Click OK.
Click Restart.

For additional information about how to perform a clean boot, visit support.microsoft.com and search for Article 331796: How to Perform a Clean Boot to Prevent Background Programs from Interfering with Play in the Microsoft Knowledge Base. (You will need an Internet connection to access this information.)
Reinstalling Flight Simulator
If the troubleshooting steps above have not resolved the problem, uninstall Flight Simulator, perform a clean boot of your computer (see Are any programs conflicting with the simulator? section earlier in this article), delete the Flight Simulator folder, and then reinstall Flight Simulator.

To uninstall Flight Simulator
Exit all programs that are running on your computer.
Click Start, point to Settings, and then click Control Panel.
Double-click Add/Remove Programs.
In the Currently installed programs list, click Microsoft Flight Simulator, then click Change/Remove.
Click Uninstall.
When you are prompted to confirm the deletion of Flight Simulator, click Yes.
 
To reinstall Flight Simulator
Insert Flight Simulator Disc 1 into your DVD drive.
If Setup does not start automatically, click Start, and then click Run.
In the Open box, type drive:\autorun (where drive is your DVD drive).

Gathering Information in DirectX
If you need to contact Microsoft for additional assistance, you can collect valuable information about your system before making that contact. Your support professional can use this information while assisting you with your issue.

To gather DirectX information
Click Start, and then click Run.
Type dxdiag in the Open box, and then click OK.
Note the version on the DirectX Version line.
Check the Notes on each tab, and write down everything in the Notes section, except for "No problems found." Make sure to take note of any uncertified drivers.
Run these recommended diagnostic tests by following the on-screen instructions:
On the Display tab, click the Test DirectDraw button to test DirectDraw functionality.
On the Display tab, click the Test Direct3D button to test Direct3D functionality
On the Sound tab, click the Test DirectSound button to test DirectSound functionality.
On the Music tab, click the Test DirectMusic button to test DirectMusic functionality.
If the problem is not resolved, contact Microsoft Product Support Services. For more information, see Online Resources below.
Online Resources
To easily diagnose and answer technical questions yourself, visit support.microsoft.com/support/games.
You can also submit your support questions via the Internet. For more details, visit support.microsoft.com/support/webresponse.asp.

Note: If your Microsoft product was preinstalled or distributed with your personal computer or provided by an Internet service provider (ISP), the computer manufacturer or ISP is responsible for providing your product support. Please contact the source from which you obtained your Microsoft product for support information.
When you contact Microsoft for support, use the following guidelines to make your support experience as quick and as pleasant as possible. You should be at your computer and have the appropriate product documentation at hand. Please be prepared to provide the following information:
The version of Flight Simulator you use.
The type of hardware you use.
The operating system you use.
The exact wording of any messages that appeared on your screen.
A description of what happened and what you were doing when the problem occurred.
A description of how you tried to solve the problem.